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Gemination
In phonetics, gemination happens when a spoken consonant is pronounced for an audibly longer period of time than a short consonant. Consonant length is distinctive in some languages, for instance Arabic, Estonian, Finnish, Classical Hebrew, Hungarian, Catalan, Italian, Japanese, Latin, Luganda, Norwegian, Russian and Swedish. Most languages (including also English) do not have distinctive long consonants. Vowel length is distinctive in more languages than consonant length. Phonology Lengthened fricatives, nasals, laterals, approximants, and trills are simply prolonged. In lengthened stops, the obstruction of the airway is prolonged, delaying release. That is, the "hold" is lengthened. Long consonants are usually around one and a half or two times as long as short consonants, depending on the language. In some languages, e.g., Italian, Swedish, Faroese, Icelandic and Luganda, consonant length and vowel length depend on each other. That is, a short vowel within a stressed syllable almost always precedes a long consonant or a consonant cluster, whereas a long vowel must be followed by a short consonant. In Classical Arabic, a long vowel was lengthened even more before permanently-geminate consonants, this is no longer exhibited in varieties of colloquial Arabic or even MSA, however. In other languages, such as Finnish, consonant length and vowel length are independent of each other. In Finnish, both are phonemic, such that taka "back", takka "fireplace", taakka "burden", and so forth are different, unrelated words; this distinction is traceable all the way back to Proto-Uralic. Finnish consonant length is also affected by consonant gradation. Another important phenomenon is that sandhi produces long consonants to word boundaries from an archiphonemic glottal stop, for example → '' "take it!" Distinctive consonant length is usually restricted to certain consonants. There are very few languages that have initial consonant length; among them are Pattani Malay, Chuukese, a few Romance languages such as Sicilian and Neapolitan, and many of the High Alemannic German dialects (such as Thurgovian). Some African languages, such as Setswana and Luganda, also have initial consonant length—in fact, initial consonant length is very common in Luganda and is used to indicate certain grammatical features. In spoken Finnish and in spoken Italian, long consonants are produced between words by sandhi effects. Among stops and fricatives, in most languages only voiceless consonants occur geminated. The reverse of gemination is the process in which a long consonant is reduced to a short one. This is called degemination. Examples Arabic Arabic uses a diacritic shaped like a small written Latin "w" called shadda (شدة). It is written above the consonant which is to be doubled. It is the most common that is sometimes used in ordinary spelling to avoid ambiguity. Example: <دّ> ; مدرسة /madrasa/ school vs. مدرّسة /mudarrisa/ teacher (f.) Luganda Luganda is unusual in that gemination can occur word-initially, as well as word-medially. For example kkapa 'cat', jjajja 'grandfather' and nnyabo 'madam' all begin with geminate consonants. There are three consonants that cannot be geminated: , and . Whenever morphological rules would geminate these consonants, and are prefixed with , and changes to . For example: * ''-ye'' 'army' (root) → ggye 'an army' (noun) * ''-yinja'' 'stone' (root) → jjinja 'a stone' (noun); jj is usually spelt ggy * ''-wanga'' 'nation' (root) → ggwanga 'a nation' (noun) * ''-lagala'' 'medicine' (root) → ddagala 'medicine' (noun) English In English phonology, consonant length is not distinctive within root words. For instance, 'baggage' is , not . Phonetic gemination occurs marginally. However, gemination does occur across words and across morphemes when the last consonant in a given word and the first consonant in the following word are the same fricative, nasal, or plosive. For instance: *calm man *this saddle *black coat *back kick *crack cocaine *cattail (compare consonant length in "catfish") With affricates, however, this does not occur. For instance: * orange juice A minimal pair demonstrating gemination in English is "night train" versus "night rain". In some dialects gemination is also found when the suffix ''-ly'' follows a root ending in -l or -ll, as in: * solely In most instances, the absence of this doubling does not affect the meaning, though it may confuse the listener momentarily. Notable examples where the doubling does affect the meaning are the pairs "unaimed" versus "unnamed" , and "holy" versus "wholly" . (The latter two are identical in many areas, however.) In some varieties of Welsh English, the process takes place indiscriminately between vowels, e.g. in money but it also applies when the orthography dictates it, e.g. butter Crystal, David (2003). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language Second Edition, Cambridge University Press, pp. 335 Estonian Estonian has three phonemic lengths; however, the third length is a suprasegmental feature, which is as much tonal patterning as a length distinction. It is traceable to allophony caused by now-deleted suffixes, for example half-long linna < *''linnan'' "of the city" vs. overlong linna < *''linnahan'' "to the city". Finnish Consonant length is phonemic in Finnish: For example, takka (transcribed with the length sign or with a doubled sign ), 'fireplace', but taka , 'back'. Greek In Ancient Greek, consonant length was distinctive, e.g., "I am of interest" vs. "I am going to". The distinction has been lost in Modern Greek, except in dialects such as the Cypriot-Greek dialect spoken in Cyprus, in varieties of the Aegean sea and elsewhere. Hungarian In Hungarian, consonant length is phonemic, e.g. megy , 'goes' and meggy , 'sour cherry'. Italian In Standard Italian, consonant length is distinctive . For example, "bevve" /'bevve/ 'bevve means "he/she drank", while "beve" /'beve/ 'be:ve means "he/she drinks/is drinking". Tonic syllables are bimoraic and are therefore composed of either a long vowel in an open syllable (beve) or a short vowel in a closed syllable (bevve). Double consonants occur not only within words but at word boundaries, where they are pronounced but not necessarily written: "chi + sa" = "chissà'" (who knows) kis'sa and "vado a casa" (I am going home) pronounced ak'ka:sa. See syntactic doubling (The last example refers to central and southern standard italian). Japanese In Japanese, consonant length is distinctive (as is vowel length). Gemination in the syllabary is represented with the sokuon, a small tsu: っ for hiragana in native words and ッ for katakana in foreign words. For example, 来た (きた, kita) means 'came; arrived', while 切った (きった, kitta) means 'cut; sliced'. バグ (bagu) means '(computer) bug', and バッグ (baggu) means 'bag'. Latin In Latin, consonant length was distinctive, e.g., a'''n'us'' "ring" vs. a'''nn'us'' "year". Gemination still occurs in Italian and Catalan. It has been completely lost in French and Romanian. Polish In Polish, consonant length is distinctive. For example, *'rodziny' – 'of the family'; rodzinny' – adjective of 'family' *'leki' - 'medicines'; lekki - 'light' *'Grecy' – 'Greeks' (noun); greccy – 'Greek' (adjective) — in fact it is pronounced . Russian In Russian, consonant length (indicated with two letters, as in ва'нн'а 'bathtub') may occur in several situations. *Word formation or conjugation: дли'н'а ( 'length') → дли'нн'ый ( 'long') *Phonological alternations: **вы'сш'ий ( 'highest'). Ukrainian In Ukrainian, geminates are found between vowels: багаття 'bonfire', подружжя 'married couple', обличчя 'face'. Geminates also occur at the start of a few words: лляний 'flaxen', forms of the verb лити 'to pour' (ллю , ллєш etc.), ссати 'to suck' and derivatives. Wagiman In Wagiman, an indigenous Australian language, consonant length in stops is the primary phonetic feature that differentiates fortis and lenis stops. Wagiman does not have phonetic voice. Word-initial and word-final stops never contrast for length. Writing In written language, consonant length is often indicated by writing a consonant twice ("ss", "kk", "pp", and so forth), but can also be indicated with a special symbol, such as the shadda in Arabic, or sokuon in Japanese. Estonian uses 'b', 'd', 'g' for short consonants, and 'p', 't', 'k' and 'pp', 'tt', 'kk' are used for long consonants. In the International Phonetic Alphabet, long consonants are normally written using the triangular colon , e.g., penne (a kind of pasta), though doubled letters are also used (especially for underlying phonemic forms). Doubled orthographic consonants do not always indicate a long phonetic consonant. In English, for example, the n sound of "running" is not lengthened. Consonant digraphs are used in English to indicate the preceding vowel is a 'lax' vowel, while a single letter often allows a 'tense' vowel to occur. For example, "tapping" (from "tap") has a "short A" , which is distinct from the diphthong "long A" in "taping" (from "tape"). In Standard Modern Greek, doubled orthographic consonants have no phonetic significance at all. Catalan uses the raised dot (called an "interpunct") to distinguish a geminated l'' from a palatal ''ll. Thus, paral·lel ("parallel") and Llull . In Hungarian, digraphs (e.g. sz /s/) are geminated by doubling the first letter only, thus ssz (rather than szsz) /sː/. (For a complete list of Hungarian digraphs, see Hungarian orthography.) The only digraph in Luganda, ny is doubled in the same way: nny . In Italian, the sound (represented by the letter Q) is always doubled by writing cq, except only in the word soqquadro where the letter Q is doubled. In Swedish, the general rule is that a geminated consonant is written double, unless succeeded by another consonant. Hence hall ("hall"), but halt ("Halt!"). This does not apply to morphological changes (so kall, "cold" and kallt, "coldly" or compounds [so tunnbröd ("flatbread")]. The exception are some words ending in ''-m'', thus hem "home" [but hemma ("at home")] and stam "stem", but lamm ["lamb", to distinguish the word from lam ("lame")], with a long /a/), as well as adjectives in ''-nn'', so tunn, "thin" but tunt, "thinly". See also *Syntactic doubling *West Germanic gemination *Glottal stop *Length (phonetics) *List of phonetic topics References Category:Consonants Category:Phonetics ar:التشديد als:Gemination br:Hirder kensonennel ca:Geminació de:Gemination (Sprache) es:Geminación (fonología) fr:Gémination it:Geminazione consonantica he:הכפלת עיצור hu:Gemináta nl:Geminatie ja:長子音 pl:Geminata pt:Geminação ru:Геминация fi:Geminaatta